Abstract
Interpretation of the Gwanggaeto Stele standing in the Manchurian soil is the most soul searching subject for Korean and blamed Japanese. The aim of this essay is to clarify the geographic location of battle fields in the Gwanggaeto Stele. By assessing other relevant ancient scriptures and geographic terrain, it is apparent that the source of current dispute is the result of erroneous interpretation of Chinese scriptures. Hence, scholars had misinterpreted the text on the Stele under the assumption that Goguryeo, Silla, Baekjae, and Wei were all in the southern part of Korean peninsula. By compounding evidences and other Steles of Goguryeo and Silla found in the southern part of Korean peninsula, most of the places named on the Stele were not in the Korean peninsula, but southern coastal region of Manchuria, and uncovered lots of untold story in the region.
The capital of Goguryeo was in the East of current Liao River, Baekjae had two capitals one in the south of Goguryeo capital, around the current Haicheng and another in the western shore of Bohai Bay. Silla set the original capital around the current Jinzhou (锦州 ) vicinity and moved the southeastern corner of Korean peninsula around 502 AD.

Introduction

One of the most important contemporary Asian affairs around the North Eastern Asia is the territorial disputes . Hence, two important US Allies; Japan and South Korea have been raising voices against each other. Understanding the true historical facts toward North Western Pacific Rim is an important matter for the US policy makers. Raising voices against each other needs to be settled for the well being of those two Asian allies.

By studying Ancient History of North Eastern Asia , it is apparent that the very root of historical animosity of two allies came up from the misinterpretation of the Ancient Chinese historiographies.

Japanese adapted western academic advancement as the first country in the North Eastern Asia. They discovered the Gwanggaeto Stele (廣開土王陵碑, Kwanggaet’o wangneungbi by McCune–Reischauer) in the Manchuria, and made a copy of engraved text by Stone rubbing. They are also the first one to find out evidences of Neolithic Hongshan culture ( 紅山文化) in the Inner Mongolia, and stood up as the most powerful political entity in the region. Most of Korean scholars felt that Japanese scholars manipulated the original text to their advantage to justify annexation of the Korean peninsula.
The voice of accusation was very high as Japanese were dominant political power. Though most of them ignored their honest mistakes made, some of them might still believe so. Since Japanese claims the Lian Rocks (Dokdo by Korean, Takeshima by Japanese) as a part of Japanese isles, the old voice of accusation resurfaced again.

It is known that Ancient Chinese historiographies had been compiled by the Imperial court appointed scholar under the Confucian value. Other small countries around the Imperial China had to accept the Chinese interpretation as the final word. Hence, the history of Far North Eastern Asia has been projected through the Ancient Chinese scriptures which had been interpreted under the Chinese hermeneutics. Without doubt, it has been one side story of Imperial Court, and lots of historical facts particularly in the North Eastern Asia, where non Chinese speaking people used to live, could be misinterpreted for the Imperial Chinese advantage. It is reasonable to assume that modern scholars might accept the old Chinese hermeneutics without critically analyzing the details, applied to old Chinese error, and interpreted the engraving in the Stele.

Presentation of the evidences:

I have to present wide panoramic view by pointing out some important matters to explain the birth of my new theory. Interpretation of the proper nouns is the most controversial issue in the history of North Eastern Asia. Proper nouns had been changed era to other and one place to the others in another era. Ancient tribe had been moved from one place to another, and so on. Because of Chinese syntax and lack of space in between sentence or phrase, defining the proper nouns themselves had been an important issue, and often the major issue. It is known that all surrounding region of ancient China used to be the home land of ethnic minorities. They were nomadic hunter and gatherer. All the issues relating with ancient history of Far Eastern Asia had been known through the Chinese scriptures interpreted by them under the influence of Chinese imperial court and Confucian ideology . As annexing the ethnic minority territory, Chinese scholars had to compile the events with combination of phonetic loan characters and semantic translation of local words by the worldly known scholars at that time. The later scholars had faced very difficult issues to interpret the scriptures. They invented and develop a new field of study known as Chinese hermeneutics (訓詁學) soon after the Han dynasty expanded territory and unique dictionaries .

The Chinese hermeneutics had taken its distinctive course, but limited to only few of Chinese Confucian scholars for long time. As the Qing dynasty (淸朝) collapsed, a group of Chinese scholars called The Doubting Antiquity School or Yigupai (疑古派;) raised the voice against millennium old tradition of Chinese hermeneutics. Some of Chinese scholars have been raising the validity of certain text as early as in the era of Western Zhou . Few good examples are related with interpretation of the crown jewel Chinese culture; Shijing (詩經, Book of Poetry) and issues relating with legendary leader Gija (箕子) who refused to submit to the new King and ran away to the Joseon territory (古朝鮮) around the current Beijing region. As an applied scientist, the author proposed a new study paradigm that the ancient history of North Eastern Asia had been projected to the world only by the Chinese scholars blessed by Imperial court and needs to be examined the same issues under different angle and different value judgment as any issues had to be examined by many others. Also applied is the modern tool known as critical reading. Despite lots of Chinese characters having been used with multiple meaning and usage as nouns or verb, the critical reading ancient scriptures has been discouraged under the Confucian school.

By examining geography and natural terrain, the Manchuria is a horse shoe shape surrounded by the Mountain and body of Sea water in the south. Before the seafarer open the waterway, the western shore along the Bohai bay is the Land Bridge and would had been since dawn of civilization as the main trade route between Manchuria and China. People living along the coastal region of Shandong Province used primitive floating device as mean of transportation.
The earliest evidences being described the Land Bridge is the story related with the fall of Shang dynasty around 1046 BC. As the King Wu of western Zhou revolted against the last king of Shang dynasty, six out of nine provinces supported him . Three Provinces along the traditional Land Bridge refused to join the revolt. As Shang dynasty collapsed, the legendary leader Giza lead the Shang elite group, took the traditional trade route, went to the north, and settled around the Beijing Tangshan region which was a part of Old Joseon .
Duke Hwan of Qi (齊桓公, 685–643 BC) and his minister Guan Zhong (管子) took first major northern military expedition against the Northern nomadic tribes, which had been described with many names. They also took the traditional Land Bridge. Qin Shi Huang(秦始皇) conquest of China in 221 BC. He didn’t go over the land bridge, but reinforced the old Yan Wall and made the Great Wall ending the strategic place near the shore , known as the Shanhaiguan (山海關) nick named as the Number One Gate under the Sun.

The birth of Three Kingdoms in the Korean history related with the fall of Old Joseon by the Han invasion in 109 BC. Emperor Wu of Han set up Four Commanderies of Han (漢四郡) in the old Joseon territory. Number, location, and Geographic boundary of the Commanderies of Han are still unsettled hot issues. The Grand Historian described the people living in the old Joseon territory as “Many town States in the direction of/around Jin Beon真番旁眾國” in his Shiji. The phrase “Many town States” evolved to the Samhan (三韓, literally Three Hans) and eventually to Three Kingdoms (三國) of Korea.
Once being shattered, people in the Old Joseon territory spread out and started to revolt against the invader Han. Despite of some opposing views, most scholars still believe that the Samhan was in the Korean peninsula. Though they accept that the main body of Goguryeo was in the Manchurian soil, Silla, Baekjae, and all Gaya Confederacies including Imna Gaya (任那加羅) were emerged from the southern part of Korean peninsula. The Samguk Yusa (三國遺事) has that the first King of Gaya (金官伽倻) met a lady who came from the west through the sea. The origin of Gaya Confederacies is written in the Book of Qi and Book of Southern Qi:

南齊書: “加羅國, 三韓種也。建元元年, 國王荷知使來獻. 詔曰：
「量廣始登，遠夷洽化。加羅王荷知款關海外，奉贄東遐。可授輔國將軍、本國王。

“The Gaya Kingdom is one of the Samhan. King Hazhi (荷知) had paid tribute to the Emperor Wu of Han漢武帝(156–87 BC) most likely for his crown ceremony.
It is way before Silla merged as a Kingdom and the first Kingdom in the Samhan (三韓) territory. The phrase “款關海外” Gaya (加羅國) ought to be the most wealthy town state listed in the section of Byeonjin (三國志弁辰傳) over the Pei Creek(浿水.) The King of Gaya (加羅國王) or the next king ought to be the Namryeo(濊君南閭) who moved down to the south western shore of Bohai Bay. Han court granted him asylum and set up the Prefecture by the Chang Hae(滄海之郡) in 125 BC for few years. It was dissolved within a few years.
The Book of Southern Qi (南齊書) also mentioned that the Wei kingdom(倭國) sent diplomatic envoy in the same year(建元元年) to the Southern Qi under the same section. However, they used same Nome creature of year applying two different dynasties. Since Wei had been recognized near the end of later Han(東漢, 後漢), it is apparent that the Wei kingdom sent their diplomatic envoy to the Chinese imperial court first time during the Southern Qi(南齊 高帝元年) in 479 , after chased out from the Manchurian soil by the Goguryeo .

The name in the “弁辰狗邪國” is most likely one of the Gaya (加羅國,) which is known to be recorded as other names with similar phonetics such as伽倻, 加耶, 伽耶, 駕洛, 加洛, 伽羅, 迦羅, 加良, 狗耶 so on.
Scholars hadn’t been successful to pin down exact location of Byeon Jin either. The clear answer is in the imperial decree came from the Emperor Taizong of Tang唐 太宗 (r. 626-649 AD ) known as “克高麗白巖城詔.” He described the northern part of land bridge as “literally valley/land of Byeon Jin弁辰之野.” He also named the Goguryeo people who fought against him as the people of Three Hans “反三韓之士.” It is known that his military campaign never crossed over the Yalu River, but limited only in the Manchurian soil. Some part of Samhan ought to be extended to the Manchurian soil.

By analyzing the Old Joseon Biography (朝鮮列傳) in the Shiji, this author proposed that Silla, Wei, and Gaya Confederacies emerged around 126 BC. Once China being unified and fell into political chaos, lots of people from the northern part of China and Shandong Province moved up to the Old Joseon territory through the Land Bridge. Shrewd merchants bribed (彭吳賈滅朝鮮) the last king of old Joseon. Minister Lixiqing (歷谿卿) of Old Joseon made earnest request to the king Ugo. King refused. The minister left the capital went to the east Jin nation “東之辰國” with two thousand families. Around the same time period, over a quarter of million people left old Joseon moved down to the Han territory along the millennium old trade route. Han court set up a refugee camp around the south western shore of Bohai bay. They called the refugee camp Prefecture by the Blue Sea: “東夷薉君南閭等口二十八萬人降，為蒼海郡. ”
This essay estimated that the refugee camp was the origin of the Wei-rin 倭人which had been described with other names such as Weilu (魏虜) or Weinu (倭奴) in other scriptures. Wei Rin (倭人) was recorded in the older scripture as Han Rin (汗人) .There was one group of Many Hans (汗國, 韓國, 三韓). It is in the 三國志 魏書三十鮮卑傳:
“聞汗人善捕魚, 於是檀石槐東擊汗國, 得千餘家.”
Later Han era, one of the Xianbei war lord Dan Seokgoe (檀石槐; 136-181) heard about that the Wei rin (汗人, 倭人, Proto Japanese) has excellent skill to catch the fish with net, he advance to the east, attacked Wei people territory, moved over thousand families to the west, and asked them to catch the fish. Wei rin (汗人, 倭人) had to be in the western shore of Bohai Bay. Here is another one to clarify the evidence that Wei and Baekjae were in the western shore of the Bohai Bay, near the Tablet Stone Mountain. The Song Court granted King Jangsu長壽王 of Goguryeo as Duke of Nangnang governing the southwestern part of Manchuria.
“宋末, 高麗王樂浪公高璉爲使持節, 散騎常侍, 都督營平二州諸軍事.”
At that time, Weilu (魏虜) mobilized one hundred thousand soldiers and attacked Baekjae. The king (牟大) of Baekjae dispatched his army and completely destroyed the invaders.
是歲, 魏虜又發騎數十萬攻百濟, 入其界, 牟大遣將沙法名, 贊首流, 解禮昆, 木幹那率衆襲擊虜軍, 大破之。建武二年, 牟大遣使上表曰.
牟大 is the twenty-fourth king (東城王 479–501) of Baekjae.
The same event was recorded in the三國史記百濟本紀東城王:
“三月遣使南齊朝貢. 十年 (489), 魏遣兵來伐, 為我所敗. ”
It is apparent that the Kingdom of Baekjae had maintained strong base in the south western coastal region of Bohai Bay as late as the era of King Dongseong (東城王 479–501). Because Baekjae set two capital from the very beginning, scriptures provided mixed interpretation about their original territory; some said they were descendent of Mahan, others said; Byeonhan 弁韓, 卞韓 same as示韓 Sheehan. Those names are referring the traditional trade route along the western shore of Bohai Bay, where Silla and western division of Baekjae set the capital.

Unlike the people living in the Korean Peninsula, people living in the Japanese isles came from three different directions of sea route as well. The Wei-rin 倭人who has been noticed in the Chinese scriptures went over through the western shore of Korean Peninsula to the southern part of the Japanese isles.
They are the same descendants of original Ye濊 people . Before then, they used to live along the south eastern slope of Greater Hinggan Range大興安嶺 where the Wei Mountain倭山 had been recorded. They came from the north mainly along the Land Bridge and spread down to the south western coastal region of the Bohai Bay. They were neighbor with the Gaya (任那加羅) and the western branch of Baekjae. Since having been settled and lived along the coastal region, they were the dominant seafarers.

Chronological aspects of the ancient steles related with the issue.

Two Goguryeo Steles高句麗碑 are found; one in Manchuria and another in the south Korean peninsula. Scholars have agreed that the stele in the Manchuria was installed to commemorate Gwanggaeto the Great (廣開土王,ruled 391-413 AD) by his son in 414, and still stands in the city of Ji’an, Tonghua prefecture, Jilin province, China. The King expended Goguryeo territory far more then his other predecessors. This Stele is one of the major primary sources for the history of Goguryeo, and supplies valuable historical details about the “Three Kingdoms of Korea and Japan” during his reign. His son Jangsu (長壽王,r. 413-491) reigned 78 years by carrying on the legacy of his father and built mighty kingdom in the Manchuria and Northern Part of Korean peninsula.
Another Goguryeo Stele known as (忠州 高句麗碑, 中原 高句麗碑) was found in the North Chungcheong province, vicinity of the Chungju city (충청북도 충주시 가금면 용전리 입석마을, literally the village of standing stele) in 1979. The Korean scholars agree that this Goguryeo Stele was installed during the era of King Jangsu of most likely around 449. It is the only one Goguryeo Stele found in the South Korean soil. Engraving reveals that the King Jangsu subjugated north western part of Silla territory. Those two Goguryeo Steles were installed by the same King Jangsu of Goguryeo only a generation apart. Those two Steles provide some unwritten invaluable information.
There are several Silla Steles have been found in the Korean peninsula. All of them are known to be installed later then those two Goguryeo Steles.
The oldest Silla Stele was found in the vicinity of Pohang City. Two Steles were found within 8 mile apart. Though the whole content of engraving hasn’t been clearly interpreted, scholars agree that the steles were installed during the 4th year of Jijeung of Silla (智證王;lived 346-515, r.500-514) who achieved lots of political reform. He is remembered for strengthening royal authority, se the country name as Silla, and building Silla into a centralized kingdom. The essences of the engraving on those Silla Stele are the judgment on property ownership in that region.
Other Steles were found in three locations, and known to be installed during the era of King Jinheung (眞興王, r.540–576) as a Boundary Steles(巡狩碑.) The Bukhansan Monument in the Seoul vicinity is known to be installed between 561-568 along with two others; the Changnyeongbi Monument in the Changnyeong County South Gyeongsang Province, and the Hwangchoryeongbi Monument in the vicinity of Hamhung municipality of North Korea. Those steles are a kind of boundary marker of Silla territory. King Jinheung was the 24th monarch of Silla and the first Silla monarch to receive the prestigious title The Duke of Nangnang and King of Silla(樂浪郡公新羅王.) Historically, the Imperial court of China granted this prestigious title, Duke of Nangnang to the ruler of north western shore of Bohai Bay from where the name Nangnang had emerged.
Historiographies have that Goguryeo lost the King Gogugwon (故國原王, ruled 331-371) in his capital while protecting Baekjae invasion from the south. This event further accelerated power struggle between Goguryeo and Baekjae. Silla got lots of refugee from the Goguryeo and Baekjae. They had moved down to the southern part of Korean peninsula over period of time and got stronger. Constant power struggle between Goguryeo and Baekjae in the Manchurian soil is correlated with the Silla Steles found around the Pohang region in the south eastern corner of Korean peninsula .

The most, hot, controversial, and yet unsettled issue is the phrase engraved in the Gwanggaeto Stele. Despite lots of controversies, scholars agreed that the phrase is interpreted to the current Chinese character as following;
“百殘新羅 舊是屬民 由來朝貢 而倭以辛卯年來 渡海 破百殘□□□羅 以爲臣民”
There are lots of unreadable symbols marked as “□□□.”
Some of the ultra conservative Japanese scholars ignored the global picture, and interpreted that Wei came over the sea, destroyed Baekjae and Silla people as their subservient. Korean scholars interpreted this segment as compound sentence. Wei came in the year of “辛卯,” so that King Gwanggaeto crossed over the sea and destroyed Baekjae…
Every scholars having interpreted the text on the assumption that the Silla Capital was in the south eastern corner of Korean peninsula, the current Gyeong ju (慶州, 경주) in the North Gyeong sang Province in South Korea.

As glancing over the Ancient History of North Eastern Asia from dawn of civilization to the end of Silla dynasty and the Steles found in the Korean peninsula, it is clear that the Silla Kingdom had emerged from the north western shore of Bohai bay in southern Manchuria, moved the capital to the current Gyeong ju during the era of King Jijeung of Silla (437–514). Majority of names engraved in the Gwanggaeto Stele had been around the Manchurian soil stretching down through the Land Bridge down to the South western shore to the Bohai bay, not in the Korean peninsula. The main source of dispute had raised from the misinterpretation of Ancient Chinese pictograms since Han Dynasty. That is the key points of this essay .
It is a huge subject which needs to be discussed by many scholars.
Since the King Gwanggaeto of Goguryeo (廣開土大王, ruled 391-412) lived only one 60-year cycle(六十甲子,) there shouldn’t be any dispute on the time element engraved in the Stele.
Stele indicates that his era was recorded as Yeong Rak (永樂391-412 AD) and also the “60-year cycle” had been used. Hence any year recorded with 60-year cycle(六十甲子) should be during his reign. The year recorded as “year of Xin mao辛卯年” should be the year of 391 AD, the very first year of King Gwanggaeto. This event is recorded in the Samguk Sagi, first year of his reign;
“三國史記; 廣開土王，諱談德，故國壤王之子。 王薨，太子卽位。秋七月，
南伐百濟，拔十城。九月，北伐契丹，虜男女五百口，冬十月，攻陷百濟關彌城。其城四面峭絶，海水環繞，王分軍七道，攻擊二十日，乃拔”
July, the new king punished the Baekjae in the south, took ten fortresses, September, punished Khitan in the North. October, Goguryeo uprooted the Kwanmi Citadel (關彌城) of Baekjae. This citadel was strategically located on the cliff all the way around and surrounded by the sea water. King divided his forces to seven prongs and attacked. It took 20 days for him to conquer the fortress. This event also recorded in the Baekjae section as well. By reading over both sides of story, the Kwanmi Citadel was most likely at the tip of Liaodong peninsula, current Dalian (大連 ) vicinity. No such terrain could be found in the west coast of Korean peninsula. Thereafter Baekjae had attempted to take back the strategically important fortress few times, but failed. It was the turning point of political power shift from Baekjae and Wei dominance in the Southern part of Manchuria to Goguryeo who was in further north.
I would like to present a brief summary of evidences to support the proposed theory.
The key words engraved in the Stele will be examined through the ancient historiographies related with Joseon and Manchuria.

Following proper nouns engraved in the Stele are the key to clarify the location on the current map. 夫餘奄利大水, 沸流谷, 忽本東岡, 襄平, 平穰, 倭人, 國城, 鹽水上, 任那加羅, 帶方界.
Buyeo (扶餘, 夫餘, 夫余, 不與之國) is the mother of Goguryeo and Baekjae, had been in various places in the Manchuria. Jolbon Buyeo卒本(忽本) 扶餘 was the metropolis of Old Buyeo. It is around the Shenyang and Liaoyang vicinity where the three rivers passing near by, the Chumong (鄒牟)entourage settled, and declared a new Kingdom (高句麗)in the Old Buyeo territory.
Three names of creek are engraved. The Chumong entourage encountered a Large river (奄利大水,) which had been recorded with many other phono-semantic characters. Gaesa su (蓋斯水) is one of them. This large river is the distal segment of Large Liao River originated from the Inner Mongolia (大遼水) or Liao River itself. The imperial decree from the Emperor Taizong has the word Gaesa (蓋斯) as referring the most fertile land. It is interpreted as the Yalu River (鴨淥水) the Samguk Yusa that another name of Liao Creek (遼水) is Yalu (鴨淥 .), now called Anmin River; “遼水一名鴨淥。今云安民江.”
The historic Great Battle of Salsu (薩水之戰) had taken place around the swamp of Liao valley (遼澤) in 612
By assessing with other names, this essay interprets North of salt water(鹽水上) as the salt farm along the western shore of Bohai Bay, not a river nor salt water lake.
Arisu (阿利水) should be a creek in the north of Baekjae Eastern Capital (其國城,漢城,) which appears to be the current Haicheng City(海城市.) Arisu could be the current Taizi he(太子河,) or a branch, Haicheng River which was recorded as Han River (漢水) in Samguk Sagi.
Biryu River(沸流水) is the current Hun River ( 渾河) passing by the south of Shenyang.
The book, which explore the questionable point in the Hanshu(漢書地理志稽疑) helps to clarify some names in the Han Shu (漢書) such as “候城, 帶方界 and無慮.”
The book interpreted “無慮” is a preplaced word of Yiwulü (醫巫閭.) Biryeo (碑麗) is the same as Biyeo (肥如, 卑耳, 卑離國) which is renamed by Wangmang as Bier (莽曰肥而.) It is the place where Yan (燕) appointed Bija (肥子) nearby the Guzhuguo (孤竹國.) All those names are around the south western part of Manchuria .

Western shore of Bohai Bay was the land bridge connecting Manchuria to the China in the south. They built the main gate as fortress at the most strategically located place, known as Number One Gate on Earth; Shanhai Pass or Shanhaiguan.
As the western Zhou revolted against Shang dynasty Six out of Nine Provinces supported the revolt around 1046 BC. Three Provinces which didn’t support were along the western shore of Bohai Bay from Shandong peninsula to the Tablet Stone Mountain. The Legendary leader, Gija (箕子) led the elite group of Shang refugee, took the traditional trade rout, and went to the Beijing-Tangshan region, which was part of Old Joseon Territory. Gija came back to the political convention conducted in the new capital city of Western Zhou in 1043 BC, but Shang refugee had stayed there and assimilated to the locals. Throughout turbulent period in the China, lots of people moved up to the north, flourished new culture known as Donghu (東胡) Culture in the Manchuria, which was recorded as Bal Joseon (發朝鮮) by Guanzi. The Grand historian replaced this phonetic loan character “Bal” with semantic translation as Gyi Joseon (暨朝鮮) by Shiji. South western part of Manchuria had been known to have plenty of natural resources. The southerners had dreamed of to live in this far away peaceful place, and wished to have luxury items from the dream land. That is the etymology of the name being described as Liaoning (遼寧) Province.
Duke Hwan of Qi (齊桓公, 685–643 BC) attacked the trouble maker in the north and killed the leader of Guzhuguo (孤竹國) around 664 BC in the south of Mountain Fuzhi (下鳧之山,) which was recorded as Fu Mountain(富山) in the Gwanggaeto Stele, Samguk Sagi, and The Records of the Three Kingdoms (三國志.) We got the answer about the route that King Gwanggaeto during the military campaign in his 5th year (永樂五年,) which was engraved with the phrase “過富山負山至鹽水上” in the Stele. The King Gwanggaeto entourage passed through the land bridge and took the road to the town “Yangpyong, 襄平,” headed to the east and arrived the town with watch tower by enjoying the scenery along the Land Bridge. “過襄平道東來候城, 備海遊觀土.”
It is the same region being described as “靑丘, literally Blue Hill” in the Tang Poem composed by .
Many proper nouns had been changed /moved from the western shore of Bohai bay to the easterly direction. Those names are Liaodong, Liao Creek遼水to Liao River遼河, Pei Creek浿水Pei River沛水 which is one of the another names of current Taizi he(太子河,) Yangpyong (襄平,) and so on
It is the source of many controversies to interpret the historiographies about the Ancient History of Manchuria. Scholars agree that Liaodong means ‘East of Liao Creek’, which had been replaced with ‘Liao River,’ hence the ‘Liaodong’ had shifted from the western shore of Bohai Bay to east of current Liao River.
The original Liaodong had been around the delta region of the current Luán-hé(灤河,) which had been renamed with many different logograms. The evidences are in the Lüshi Chunqiu (呂氏春秋): “何謂六川？河水，赤水，遼水，黑水，江水，淮水.”
One of six large rivers in China before Qin Shi Huang(秦始皇) unified China in 221 BC. Another evidence is in the Shuo Yuan (說苑). Duke Huan of Qi encountered during his northern campaign in 664 BC was the Liao Creek which should be not far away from the Fu Mountain (富山, 鳧之山.)
The third evidence is in the 水經注 濡水:
“《晉書•地道志》曰：遼西人見遼水有浮棺，欲破之，語曰：我孤竹君也.”
People in the west of Liao Creek noticed a coffin floating in the Liao Creek, want to destroy. Folktale has that it was the King of Guzhuguo who was killed by the Duke. Book of Jin redefined the original ‘East of Liao’ to ‘West of Liao’ as the result; the body of Liao had been shifted to the East. The Book of Jin is an official Chinese historical text covering the history of both western and Eastern Jin dynasty from 265 to 420. It was one of the most mysterious eras in the history of Manchuria. The book was commissioned by the imperial court of the Tang dynasty.
Nevertheless, the original Liaodong is well described in the Shiji by the Grand Historian.
Han army was dispatched from the original Liaodong to attack the Joseon in Manchuria. Han Navy disembarked same general area which had been described as the Delta(洌口, 列口 in the Hanshu) of current Luán-hé(灤河, 濡水)
It is the same region where the Shrine for Han Emperor Gaozu of Han(漢高祖; 202 BC to 195 BC) had been. The shrine was burnt down before the Emperor Wu of Han invaded Joseon in 109 BC. The firs major battle that Han army had to encounter was around the border; Pei Creek (浿水 ,) which should be around the Number One Gate under the Sun.

They moved the name ‘Yangpyong襄平’ from the western shore of Bohai Bay where the old Joseon capital had been to the east of current Liao River, the current Liaoyang. The grand historian described the eastern end of the Yan Wall ended at the Yangpyong “燕亦筑長城，自造陽至襄平. ” The Stele used the same name for the same place referring that they passed through the Land Bridge.
As did the Grand Historian, most of pre Han-Qin era scriptures indicated the Yangpyong in the original Liaodong region, as in the title marquis of Yangpyong (襄平侯) being applied before Han invaded Old Joseon. However, almost all of the post Han era scriptures referred Yangpyong as the town Liaoyang(遼陽) in the east of current Liao River.
The most renowned Western Jin era scholar, Chen Shou (陳壽 233-297) appears to have manipulated the location of Liaodong, Yangpyong, and Xuantu (玄菟, 元菟, 元兔) as describing the section of Gong sun du (公孫度) clan, which was destroyed by the forefather of Western Jin. As the result, modern historian accepted Yangpyong as written in the post Han era Chinese scriptures, and misinterpreted the phrase in the Stele as the way going to the Liaoyang. Unlike official historiographies, the Imperial decree or poems couldn’t be tempered. The war lord Cao Cao and Emperor Taizong of Tang唐 太宗 (r. 626-649 AD) left good number of poems. Another one is the engraved text by one of most prominent Tang era scholar/poet; Yang Jiong (唐右將軍魏哲神道碑, 楊炯 作.)
The most northern Xuantu Commanderies(玄菟郡 ; 高句驪，上殷台，西蓋馬) of Han was around the current Zhao yang region “元兔白狼之野,” which had been part of the Three Han territory “問三韓之罪. ” The geographic relationship of Xuantu, Daebang, and Three Han(三韓,) are well described in those poems and imperial decree. All those names were around the tradition trail route connecting the China proper to Manchuria.

Another evidence to support the new theory is the word “north of salt farm/water.” Only places where salt could be considered from the south of Goguryeo are either the Xiechi(解池) in the Shanxi Province or Bohai Bay. It is known that Southern part Manchuria doesn’t produce rock salt. Salt farm have been very active along the western shore of the Bohai Bay. It is written in the Samguk Sagi under the name Seok uro (昔于老): “于老主之, 與客戱言：「早晚, 以汝王為鹽奴, 王妃為爨婦」倭王聞之怒.”
“As a high official entertaining with the guest, Uro (于老) joked to the guest from the Wei (倭). Very soon, we will make the king of Wei as a slave to work in the salt farm and your queen as maid to work in the kitchen. The king of Wei heard about the story and was mad.” Thus, Wei invaded Silla. This is an event had been around the year of 250 after Gongsun Yuan (公孫淵) defeated in 238. Throughout the early period of Korean history, the three kingdoms had constant war. Since Goguryeo land locked and had to get salt from the northern shore of the current Liaodong Bay, the friction with southern neighbors could be somewhat related to the salt supply. The coastal region was under mostly Baekjae (百濟) and Silla (新羅,) Gaya confederacy(任那加羅) and Wei (倭) were further south western shore of Bohai bay. They were dominant seafarer along the Mediterranean Sea of North Eastern Asia.
Baekjae had made alliance with Wei and Gong sun clan. They controlled the water way and southern coastal region of Manchuria. Once Gong sun clan destroyed, Baekjae and Wei also lost grip in the Manchuria, had to move down along the west cost of Korean peninsula down to the Japanese archipelagos. Baekjae couldn’t give up their ancient glory and ancient capital in particular. They fought against Goguryeo in the north. People from those two wars torn countries had moved to Silla. Silla grew up fast, and moved the capital to the southern part of Korean peninsula. The text in the Samguk Sagi could be the evidence of drastic change in the Silla. In the 4th year of King Jijeung, his cabinet staffs recommended to change the name as Silla. The key element is the phrase “德業日新,” which were recorded both Samguk Sagi and Yusa. Governance of Silla court has been spread up as sun rising up improved quickly within short time period.

Silla steles found in the Korean peninsula and two Goguryeo Steles mentioned already are the evidence. Once Silla grew up stronger, they paid tribute. The Northern Qi provided him the title “Commander of the Dong-Yi, Duke of Nangnang, the king of Silla; 東夷校尉樂浪郡公新羅王.”
He was the first King of Silla received the prestigious title relating with the region in the south western part of Manchuria, Nangnang. The 22nd ruler Jijeung (智証麻立干; r.500-514) sent expedition team to the Eastern Sea and found the large island known to be current Ulleung-do (鬱陵島.) It is very possible that they found the Lian court Rock (獨島, Dokdo by Korean) as well.
It is written in the Samguk Yusa; “已上為上古已下為中古.”
The King was enthrone in the year of 庚辰(500 AD) reigned 14 years. They called before him as ancient era, after him as middle era. Most likely Silla moved the Capital from North western Shore of Balhae Bay to Gyeong ju during the era of 22nd king.

With those evidences, it is safe to conclude that the King Gwanggaeto had encountered his political foes in the Manchurian soil, not in the Korean peninsula.

The End

Submit to: Georgetown Journal of Asian Affairs
Date: July 7, 2015